Karakorumske planine
| Karakorum | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Geografske karakteristike | |
| Najviša tačka | K2 |
| Ndm. visina | 8611 m |
| Koordinate | 35° 52′ 57″ S; 76° 30′ 48″ I / 35.8825° S; 76.513333° I 35° 52′ 57″ S; 76° 30′ 48″ I / 35.8825° S; 76.513333° I |
| Geografija | |
| Države | Avganistan, Kina, Indija, Pakistan i Tadžikistan |
Karakorum je veliki planinski venac koji se proteže između Pakistana, Indije i Kine. Nalazi se u oblastima Gilgit-Baltistan (Pakistan), Ladah (Indija) i Sinkjang (Kina). Karakorum je deo Hindukuško-himalajskog venca i mesto najveće kocentracije vrhova preko 8000 m na svetu, među kojima je i K2, drugi najviši vrh na svetu sa 8.611 m.[1][2] Karakorum ima osamnaest vrhova preko 7.500 m (24.600 ft) u visinu, od kojih četiri prelaze 8.000 m (26.000 ft):[3] K2, drugi najviši vrh na svetu sa 8.611 m (28.251 ft), Gašerbram I, Široki vrh i Gašerbram II.
Opseg je dugačak oko 500 km (311 mi) i predstavlja deo sveta sa najvećom glacijacijom van polarnih regiona. Glečer Sijačen[4][5][6][7] na 76 km (47 mi) i glečer Bijafo[8] na 63 km (39 mi) rangiraju se kao drugi i treći najduži glečeri na svetu izvan polarnih regiona.[9] Karakorum je sa severoistoka orkružen Tibetom, a sa severa Pamirom. Južnu granicu Karakoruma čine, od zapada ka istoku, reke Gilgit, Ind i Šajok, koji odvajaju venac od severozapadnog dela Himalaja, pošto ove reke teku na jugozapad prema pakistanskim ravnicama.
Nacionalni rezervat prirode Takskorgan i Nacionalni rezervat prirode Pamir Vetlands u planinama Karalorun i Pamir nominovani su za uključivanje u UNESCO spisak 2010. godine od strane Nacionalne komisije Narodne Republike Kine i uslovno su dodati na listu.[10]
Etimologija
[uredi | uredi izvor]Karakorum je turski izraz koji znači „crni šljunak”. Centralnoazijski trgovci prvobitno su primenjivali ovaj izraz na prevoj Karakorum.[11] Rani evropski putnici, uključujući Vilijama Murkrofta i Džordža Hejvorda, počeli su da koriste termin Karakorum za planinski lanac zapadno od prevoja, iako su takođe koristili izraz „Muztagh” (u prevodu „Ledena planina“) za lanac koji je danas poznat kao Karakorum.[11][12] Na kasniju terminologiju uticale su geodete iz Indije, posebno Tomas Montgomeri koji je 1850-ih dao oznake od K1 do K6 (K za Karakorum) za šest visokih planina vidljivih iz njegove stanice na planini Haramuk, u dolini Kašmira.
U tradicionalnoj indijskoj geografiji planine su bile poznate kao „Krishnagiri” (Crne planine), „Kanhagiri” i „Kanheri”.[13]
Geologija i glečeri
[uredi | uredi izvor]Karakorum se nalazi u jednoj od geološki najaktivnijih oblasti na svetu, na granici između Indo-australske ploče i Evroazijske ploče.[14] Značajan deo, negde između 28 i 50 procenata, Karakorumskog lanca je pod glečerima i pokriva površinu veću od 15.000 km2 (5.800 sq mi),[15] u poređenju sa između 8 i 12 procenata Himalaja i 2,2 procenta Alpa.[16] Planinski glečeri mogu poslužiti kao indikator klimatskih promena, napredujući i povlačeći se sa dugotrajnim promenama temperature i padavina. Glečeri Karakoruma se blago povlače,[17][18][19] za razliku od Himalaja gde glečeri gube masu znatno većom brzinom, mnogi glečeri Karakoruma su prekriveni slojem loma koji izoluje led od toplote sunca.[20] Tamo gde nema takve izolacije, stopa povlačenja je visoka.[21]
- Sijačen glečer
- Baltoro glečer
- Hispar glečer
- Batura glečer
- Bijafo glečer
- Čogo Lungma glečer
- Jinsugajti glečer
Ledeno doba
[uredi | uredi izvor]U poslednjem ledenom dobu, povezana serija glečera protezala se od zapadnog Tibeta do Nanga Parbata, i od Tarimskog basena do okruga Gilgit.[22][23][24] Na jugu, glečer Inda je bio glavni dolinski glečer, koji je tekao 120 km (75 mi) naniže od masiva Nanga Parbat do 870 m (2.850 ft) nadmorske visine.[22][25] Na severu su se glečeri Karakoruma pridružili onima sa planina Kunlun i spustili se do 2.000 m (6.600 ft) u basenu Tarima.[24][26]
Dok trenutni dolinski glečeri u Karakorumu dostižu maksimalnu dužinu od 76 km (47 mi), nekoliko grana glečera u dolini ledenog doba i glavnih dolinskih glečera, imalo je dužinu do 700 km (430 mi). Tokom ledenog doba, snežna linija glečera bila je oko 1.300 m (4.300 ft) niža nego danas.[24][25]
Reference
[uredi | uredi izvor]- ^ Bessarabov, Georgy Dmitriyevich (7. 2. 2014). „Karakoram Range”. Encyclopædia Britannica. Pristupljeno 3. 5. 2015.
- ^ „Hindu Kush Himalayan Region”. ICIMOD. Pristupljeno 17. 10. 2014.
- ^ Shukurov, The Natural Environment of Central and South Asia 2005, str. 512; Voiland, Adam (2013). „The Eight-Thousanders”. Nasa Earth Observatory. Pristupljeno 23. 12. 2016.; BBC, Planet Earth, "Mountains", Part Three
- ^ Gauhar, Feryal Ali; Yusuf, Ahmed (2. 11. 2014). „Siachen: The place of wild roses”. Pristupljeno 4. 8. 2017.
- ^ North, Andrew (12. 4. 2014). „Siachen dispute: India and Pakistan's glacial fight”. BBC. Pristupljeno 4. 8. 2017.
- ^ „India gained control over Siachen in 1984”. Pristupljeno 4. 8. 2017.
- ^ „Blog: The Siachen Story, Then And Now”. NDTV.com.
- ^ „Archived copy”. Arhivirano iz originala 2014-02-22. g. Pristupljeno 2014-02-16.
- ^ Tajikistan's Fedchenko Glacier is 77 km (48 mi) long. Baltoro and Batura Glaciers in the Karakoram are 57 km (35 mi) long, as is Bruggen or Pio XI Glacier in southern Chile. Measurements are from recent imagery, generally supplemented with Russian 1:200,000 scale topographic mapping as well as Jerzy Wala,Orographical Sketch Map: Karakoram: Sheets 1 & 2, Swiss Foundation for Alpine Research, Zurich, 1990.
- ^ „Karakorum-Pamir”. UNESCO. Pristupljeno 16. 2. 2013.
- ^ a b Mason, Kenneth (1928). Exploration of the Shaksgam Valley and Aghil ranges, 1926. str. 72. ISBN 978-81-206-1794-0.
- ^ Close C, Burrard S, Younghusband F, et al. (1930). „Nomenclature in the Karakoram: Discussion”. The Geographical Journal. Blackwell Publishing. 76 (2): 148—158. JSTOR 1783980. doi:10.2307/1783980.
- ^ Kohli, M.S. (2002), Mountains of India: Tourism, Adventure and Pilgrimage, Indus Publishing, str. 22, ISBN 978-81-7387-135-1
- ^ „Geological evolution of the Karakoram ranges”. Italian Journal of Geosciences. 130 (2): 147—159. 2011. doi:10.3301/IJG.2011.08.
- ^ Muhammad, Sher; Tian, Lide; Khan, Asif (2019). „Early twenty-first century glacier mass losses in the Indus Basin constrained by density assumptions”. Journal of Hydrology. 574: 467—475. Bibcode:2019JHyd..574..467M. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.04.057
.
- ^ Gansser (1975). Geology of the Himalayas. London: Interscience Publishers.
- ^ Gallessich, Gail (2011). „Debris on certain Himalayan glaciers may prevent melting”. sciencedaily.com. Pristupljeno 30. 1. 2011.
- ^ Muhammad, Sher; Tian, Lide (2016). „Changes in the ablation zones of glaciers in the western Himalaya and the Karakoram between 1972 and 2015”. Remote Sensing of Environment. 187: 505—512. Bibcode:2016RSEnv.187..505M. doi:10.1016/j.rse.2016.10.034 .
- ^ Muhammad, Sher; Tian, Lide; Nüsser, Marcus (2019). „No significant mass loss in the glaciers of Astore Basin (North-Western Himalaya), between 1999 and 2016”. Journal of Glaciology. 65 (250): 270—278. Bibcode:2019JGlac..65..270M. doi:10.1017/jog.2019.5 .
- ^ Muhammad, Sher; Tian, Lide; Ali, Shaukat; Latif, Yasir; Wazir, Muhammad Atif; Goheer, Muhammad Arif; Saifullah, Muhammad; Hussain, Iqtidar; Shiyin, Liu (2020). „Thin debris layers do not enhance melting of the Karakoram glaciers”. Science of the Total Environment. 746: 141119. Bibcode:2020ScTEn.746n1119M. PMID 32763605. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141119 .
- ^ Veettil, B.K. (2012). „A Remote sensing approach for monitoring debris-covered glaciers in the high altitude Karakoram Himalayas”. International Journal of Geomatics and Geosciences. 2 (3): 833—841.
- ^ a b Kuhle, M. (1988). „The Pleistocene Glaciation of Tibet and the Onset of Ice Ages- An Autocycle Hypothesis.Tibet and High Asia. Results of the Sino-German Joint Expeditions (I)”. GeoJournal. 17 (4): 581—596. S2CID 129234912. doi:10.1007/BF00209444.
- ^ Kuhle, M. (2006). „The Past Hunza Glacier in Connection with a Pleistocene Karakoram Ice Stream Network during the Last Ice Age (Würm)”. Ur.: Kreutzmann, H.; Saijid, A. Karakoram in Transition. Karachi, Pakistan: Oxford University Press. str. 24—48.
- ^ a b v Kuhle, M. (2011). „The High Glacial (Last Ice Age and Last Glacial Maximum) Ice Cover of High and Central Asia, with a Critical Review of Some Recent OSL and TCN Dates”. Ur.: Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P.L.; Hughes, P.D. Quaternary Glaciation – Extent and Chronology, A Closer Look. Amsterdam: Elsevier BV. str. 943—965. (glacier maps downloadable)
- ^ a b Kuhle, M. (2001). „Tibet and High Asia (VI): Glaciogeomorphology and Prehistoric Glaciation in the Karakoram and Himalaya”. GeoJournal. 54 (1–4): 109—396. doi:10.1023/A:1021307330169.
- ^ Kuhle, M. (1994). „Present and Pleistocene Glaciation on the North-Western Margin of Tibet between the Karakoram Main Ridge and the Tarim Basin Supporting the Evidence of a Pleistocene Inland Glaciation in Tibet. Tibet and High Asia. Results of the Sino-German and Russian-German Joint Expeditions (III)”. GeoJournal. 33 (2/3): 133—272. S2CID 189882345. doi:10.1007/BF00812877.
Literatura
[uredi | uredi izvor]- Curzon, George Nathaniel. 1896. The Pamirs and the Source of the Oxus. Royal Geographical Society, London. Reprint: Elibron Classics Series, Adamant Media Corporation. 2005. ISBN 1-4021-5983-8 (pbk); ISBN 1-4021-3090-2 (hbk).
- Kipling, Rudyard 2002. Kim (novel); ed. by Zohreh T. Sullivan. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 039396650X—This is the most extensive critical modern edition with footnotes, essays, maps, etc.
- Mortenson, Greg and Relin, David Oliver. 2008. Three Cups of Tea. Penguin Books Ltd. ISBN 978-0-14-103426-3 (pbk); Viking Books ISBN 978-0-670-03482-6 (hbk); Tantor Media ISBN 978-1-4001-5251-3 (MP3 CD).
- Kreutzmann, Hermann (2006). Karakoram in Transition: Culture, Development, and Ecology in the Hunza Valley. Oxford, Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-547210-3.
- Shukurov, E. (2005), „The Natural Environment of Central and South Asia” (PDF), Ur.: Chahryar Adle, History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. VI – Towards the contemporary period: from the mid-nineteenth to the end of the twentieth century, UNESCO, str. 480—514, ISBN 978-92-3-103985-0
- Dainelli, G. (1932). „A Journey to the Glaciers of the Eastern Karakoram”. doi:10.2307/1784325.. The Geographical Journal, 79(4), 257–268.
- Schofield, Victoria (2003) [First published in 2000], Kashmir in Conflict, London and New York: I. B. Taurus & Co, ISBN 1860648983
- Snedden, Christopher (2015), Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-1-84904-342-7
- Woodman, Dorothy (1969), Himalayan Frontiers, Barrie & Rockcliff
- Woodman, Dorothy (1970), Himalayan Frontiers: A Political Review of British, Chinese, Indian, and Russian Rivalries, Praeger
- Trivei, Abishek (8. 7. 2019). „Why the 1963 Sino-Pakistan Boundary Agreement Is Unlawful in Light of the Recent ICJ Advisory Opinion on the Chagos Archipelago, 2019”. www.jurist.org. Pristupljeno 2021-11-07.
- Noorani, A. G. (20. 10. 2006). „Facing the truth”. Frontline. „The Shaksgam Valley was never part of Kashmir and the northern and eastern boundaries of Kashmir were undefined”
- „Signing with the Red Chinese”. Time (magazine). 15. 3. 1963. Arhivirano iz originala 6. 8. 2020. g. Pristupljeno 28. 10. 2019.
- R Chandrashekhar (2017). THE GILGIT AND BALTISTAN REGIONS OF JAMMU AND KASHMIR STATE (PDF). Center for Joint Warfare Studies. New Delhi: Xtreme Office Aids Pvt. Ltd. str. 63. ISBN 978-93-84492-36-6. „An area that is legally part of the state of Jammu and Kashmir has since 1963 been administered by China as a part of Kargilik County and Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County in the Kashgar Prefecture of Xinjiang Autonomous Region. Prior to 1963 the Shaksgam tract had been administered as a part of Shigar.”[mrtva veza]
- Complete Atlas Of The World (3 izd.). Penguin Random House. 2016. str. 238 — preko Internet Archive. „(claimed by India)”
Spoljašnje veze
[uredi | uredi izvor]
- Blankonthemap The Northern Kashmir Website
- Pakistan's Northern Areas dilemma
- Great Karakorams – images on Flickr
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