Fosil
Fosil (lat. fossus, u doslovnom prevodu „onaj koji je zakopan“)[1] je očuvani ostatak organizma, njegovog dela ili tragova života. Fosili daju podatke o razvoju organskog sveta u prošlosti, kako se životna sredina menjala kroz geološku prošlost, o evoluciji i biogeografiji živih bića. Fosili su mnogo raznovrsniji nego stene u kojima se nalaze i pružaju više mogućnosti za određivanje redosleda i starosti događaja u Zemljinoj kori. Fosili se najčešće sačuvaju u sedimentnim stenama, dok se u metamorfnim stenama javljaju veoma retko. Fosile i istoriju života proučava nauka paleontologija kroz svoje discipline.
Paleontologija je proučavanje fosila: njihove starosti, načina formiranja i evolucionog značaja. Uzorci se obično smatraju fosilima ako su stariji od 10.000 godina.[2] Najstariji fosili stari su oko 3,48 milijardi godina[3][4][5] do 4,1 milijarde godina.[6][7] Zapažanje u 19. veku da su određeni fosili povezani sa određenim slojevima stena dovelo je do prepoznavanja geološke vremenske skale i relativne starosti različitih fosila. Razvoj tehnika radiometrijskog datiranja početkom 20. veka omogućio je naučnicima da kvantitativno izmere apsolutnu starost stena i fosila na kojima se nalaze.
Postoje mnogi procesi koji dovode do fosilizacije, uključujući permineralizaciju, livenje i kalupe, autigenu mineralizaciju, zamenu i rekristalizaciju, supresiju, karbonizaciju i bioimuraciju.
Fosili se razlikuju po veličini, od bakterija od 1 mikrometra (1 µm) bacteria[8] do dinosaurusa i drveća, dugačkih nekoliko metara i teških mnogo tona. Fosil obično prezervira samo deo pokojnog organizma, obično onaj deo koji je bio delimično mineralizovan tokom života, kao što su kosti i zubi kičmenjaka, ili hitinski ili krečnjački egzoskeleti beskičmenjaka. Fosili se takođe mogu sastojati od tragova koje je organizam ostavio za života, poput tragova životinja ili izmeta (koproliti). Ove vrste fosila nazivaju se fosilni tragovi ili ihnofosili, za razliku od telesnih fosila. Neki fosili su biohemijski i nazivaju se hemofosili ili biopotpisi.
Podela
[uredi | uredi izvor]Fosili mogu biti:
- „Pravi fosili“, koji se dele na:
- karakteristične fosile - to su fosili koji imaju vrlo malo vertikalno rasprostranjenje, tj. veoma brzu evoluciju. Oni su ograničeni na naslage taložene u jednom kraćem geološkom razdoblju, a imaju veliko geografsko rasprostranjenje.
- perzistentne fosile - fosili koji imaju veoma veliko vertikalno rasprostranjenje, tj. veoma sporu evoluciju, tako da na osnovu njih nije moguća odredba starosti sedimenata koji ih sadrže.
- facijalne fosile - to su fosili koji karakterišu jednu određenu sredinu. Oni su usko ograničenih ekoloških svojstava i njihov nalazak u jednom sloju je dobar indikator nekadašnje životne sredine. Najtipičniji primer facijalnih fosila su sprudotvorni korali. Na osnovu njih izvodi se zaključak da je sediment nastao pod sledećim uslovima: toplo more, mala dubina, mnogo svetla, velika količina kiseonika i čista voda normalnog saliniteta.
- Subfosili - to su fosili iz istorijskog doba, koji nisu prošli ceo put fosilizacije.
- Pseudofosili - to su tvorevine neorganskog porekla, koje podsećaju na neku biljku. Obično je to dendritični agregat minerala piroluzita.
- Tragovi života, koji se dele na:
- tragove kretanja
- tragove hranjenja (tragovi po sedimentu, ubadanje i bušenje sedimenata, tragovi boravka, koproliti).
- „Živi fosili“ - to su predstavnici vrsta koji su i dalje živi, a koji su nastali u daljoj geološkoj prošlosti, koji žive na malim i izolovanim mestima, i nisu bitno evoluirali od nastanka.
Galerija
[uredi | uredi izvor]-
Fosili u Dolini kitova, Egipat
-
Fosil Pantodonta, Kanada
-
Kolekcija fosila
-
Fosil ribe,Muzej Hercegovine, Trebinje
-
Fosil biljke,Muzej Hercegovine, Trebinje
Reference
[uredi | uredi izvor]- ^ Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Arhivirano iz originala 11. 1. 2008. g. Pristupljeno 17. 6. 2013.
- ^ „theNAT :: San Diego Natural History Museum :: Your Nature Connection in Balboa Park :: Frequently Asked Questions”. Sdnhm.org. Arhivirano iz originala 10. 5. 2012. g. Pristupljeno 5. 11. 2012.
- ^ Borenstein, Seth (13. 11. 2013). „Oldest fossil found: Meet your microbial mom”. Associated Press. Arhivirano iz originala 29. 6. 2015. g. Pristupljeno 15. 11. 2013.
- ^ Noffke, Nora; Christian, Christian; Wacey, David; Hazen, Robert M. (8. 11. 2013). „Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ca. 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia”. Astrobiology. 13 (12): 1103—24. Bibcode:2013AsBio..13.1103N. PMC 3870916 . PMID 24205812. doi:10.1089/ast.2013.1030.
- ^ Brian Vastag (21. 8. 2011). „Oldest 'microfossils' raise hopes for life on Mars”. The Washington Post. Arhivirano iz originala 19. 10. 2011. g. Pristupljeno 21. 8. 2011.
Wade, Nicholas (21. 8. 2011). „Geological Team Lays Claim to Oldest Known Fossils”. The New York Times. Arhivirano iz originala 1. 5. 2013. g. Pristupljeno 21. 8. 2011. - ^ Borenstein, Seth (19. 10. 2015). „Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth”. Excite. Yonkers, NY: Mindspark Interactive Network. Associated Press. Arhivirano iz originala 23. 10. 2015. g. Pristupljeno 2015-10-20.
- ^ Bell, Elizabeth A.; Boehnike, Patrick; Harrison, T. Mark; et al. (19. 10. 2015). „Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1 billion-year-old zircon” (PDF). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 112 (47): 14518—21. Bibcode:2015PNAS..11214518B. ISSN 1091-6490. PMC 4664351 . PMID 26483481. doi:10.1073/pnas.1517557112 . Arhivirano (PDF) iz originala 6. 11. 2015. g. Pristupljeno 2015-10-20. Early edition, published online before print.
- ^ Westall, Frances; et al. (2001). „Early Archean fossil bacteria and biofilms in hydrothermally influenced sediments from the Barberton greenstone belt, South Africa”. Precambrian Research. 106 (1–2): 93—116. Bibcode:2001PreR..106...93W. doi:10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00127-3.
Literatura
[uredi | uredi izvor]- "Grand Canyon cliff collapse reveals 313 million-year-old fossil footprints" 21 Aug 2020, CNN
- "Hints of fossil DNA discovered in dinosaur skull" by Michael Greshko, 3 Mar 2020, National Geographic
- "Fossils for Kids | Learn all about how fossils are formed, the types of fossils and more!" Video (2:23), 27 Jan 2020, Clarendon Learning
- "Fossil & their formation" Video (9:55), 15 Nov 2019, Khan Academy
- "How are dinosaur fossils formed? by Lisa Hendry, Natural History Museum, London
- "Fossils 101" Video (4:27), 22 Aug 2019, National Geographic
- "How to Spot the Fossils Hiding in Plain Sight" by Jessica Leigh Hester, 23 Feb 2018, Atlas Obscura
- "It's extremely hard to become a fossil" Arhivirano na sajtu Wayback Machine (4. septembar 2009), by Olivia Judson, 30 Dec 2008, The New York Times
- "Bones Are Not the Only Fossils" Arhivirano na sajtu Wayback Machine (15. mart 2009), by Olivia Judson, 4 Mar 2008, The New York Times
- Bromley, R.G., 1970. Borings as trace fossils and Entobia cretacea Portlock as an example, p. 49-90. In: Crimes, T.P. and Harper, J.C. (eds.), Trace Fossils. Geological Journal Special Issue 3.
- Bromley, R.G., 2004. A stratigraphy of marine bioerosion. In: The application of ichnology to palaeoenvironmental and stratigraphic analysis. (Ed. D. McIlroy), Geological Society of London, Special Publications 228:455-481.
- Palmer, T.J., 1982. Cambrian to Cretaceous changes in hardground communities. Lethaia 15:309-323.
- Seilacher, Adolf (2007). Trace Fossil Analysis. Springer-Verlag. 226 p. ISBN 9783540472254.
- Vinn, O.; Wilson, M.A. (2010). „Occurrence of giant borings of Osprioneides kampto in the lower Silurian (Sheinwoodian) stromatoporoids of Saaremaa, Estonia”. Ichnos. 17 (3): 166—171. S2CID 128990588. doi:10.1080/10420940.2010.502478. Pristupljeno 2014-01-10. Nepoznati parametar
|name-list-style=
ignorisan (pomoć) - Wilson, M.A., 1986. Coelobites and spatial refuges in a Lower Cretaceous cobble-dwelling hardground fauna. Palaeontology 29:691-703.
- Wilson, M.A. and Palmer, T.J., 2006. Patterns and processes in the Ordovician Bioerosion Revolution. Ichnos 13: 109-112.[1]
- Yochelson, E.L. and Fedonkin, M.A., 1993. Paleobiology of Climactichnites, and Enigmatic Late Cambrian Fossil. Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology 74:1-74.
- Andrews, Henry N., Jr. (1967) [Originally published 1961]. Studies in Paleobotany. Chapter on palynology by Charles J. Felix (Reprint izd.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. LCCN 61006768. OCLC 12877482.
- Benton, Michael J. (1997). Vertebrate Palaeontology (2nd izd.). London: Chapman & Hall. ISBN 978-0-412-73810-4. OCLC 37378512.
- Browne, Janet (2003) [Originally published 2002]. Charles Darwin: The Power of Place. 2. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 978-0-7126-6837-8. OCLC 806284755.
- Castro, Peter; Huber, Michael E. (2003). Marine Biology. Original art work by William Ober and Claire Garrison (4th izd.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-029421-9. LCCN 2002190248. OCLC 49259996.
- Chapleau, François; Amaoka, Kunio (1998). „Flatfishes”. Ur.: Paxton, John R.; Eschmeyer, William M. Encyclopedia of Fishes. Illustrations by David Kirshner (2nd izd.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-547665-2. LCCN 98088228. OCLC 39641701.
- Darwin, Charles (1859). On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (1st izd.). London: John Murray. LCCN 06017473. OCLC 741260650. The book is available from The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online. Retrieved 2015-05-13.
- Donovan, Stephen K.; Paul, Christopher R. C., ur. (1998). The Adequacy of the Fossil Record. Chichester; New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-96988-4. LCCN 98010110. OCLC 38281286.
- Eldredge, Niles; Gould, Stephen Jay (1972). „Punctuated equilibria: an alternative to phyletic gradualism”. Ur.: Schopf, Thomas J. M. Models in Paleobiology. San Francisco, CA: Freeman, Cooper. ISBN 978-0-87735-325-6. LCCN 72078387. OCLC 572084.
- Freeman, Scott; Herron, Jon C. (2004). Evolutionary Analysis (3rd izd.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-13-101859-4. LCCN 2003054833. OCLC 52386174.
- Gingerich, Philip D.; Russell, Donald E. (1981). Pakicetus inachus, a New Archaeocete (Mammalia, Cetacea) From the Early-Middle Eocene Kuldana Formation of Kohat (Pakistan) (PDF) (Research report). Contributions from the Museum of Paleontology. 25. Ann Arbor, MI: Museum of Paleontology, University of Michigan. str. 235—246. ISSN 0097-3556. LCCN 82621252. OCLC 8263404.
- Gould, Stephen Jay (1980). The Panda's Thumb: More Reflections in Natural History (1st izd.). New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-01380-1. LCCN 80015952. OCLC 6331415.
- Haeckel, Ernst (2011) [Originally published 1912; London: Watts & Co.]. The Evolution of Man. 1. Translated from the German by Joseph McCabe (5th enlarged izd.). Hamburg, Germany: Tredition Classics. ISBN 978-3-8424-6302-8. OCLC 830523724.
- Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste (1815—1822). Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres (na jeziku: francuski). Paris: Verdière. LCCN 07018340. OCLC 5269931.
- Lovejoy, Arthur O. (1936). The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea. William James Lectures, 1933. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. LCCN 36014264. OCLC 192226.
- Leche, V. (1904). „Archæopteryx”. Ur.: Meijer, Bernhard. Nordisk familjebok (na jeziku: švedski) (New, revised and richly illustrated izd.). Stockholm: Nordisk familjeboks förlags aktiebolag. LCCN 15023737. OCLC 23562281.
- Prothero, Donald R. (2007). Evolution: What the Fossils Say and Why it Matters. Original illustrations by Carl Buell. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-13962-5. LCCN 2007028804. OCLC 154711166.
- Reader, John (2011). Missing Links: In Search of Human Origins. Foreword by Andrew Hill (Enlarged and updated izd.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927685-1. LCCN 2011934689. OCLC 707267298.
- Shubin, Neil (2008). Your Inner Fish: A Journey into the 3.5-Billion-Year History of the Human Body. New York: Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-0-375-42447-2. LCCN 2007024699. OCLC 144598195.
- Swisher, Carl C., III; Curtis, Garniss H.; Lewin, Roger (2001) [Originally published 2000]. Java Man: How Two Geologists Changed Our Understanding of Human Evolution. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-78734-3. LCCN 2001037337. OCLC 48066180.
- Wellnhofer, Peter (2004). „The Plumage of Archaeopteryx: Feathers of a Dinosaur?”. Ur.: Currie, Philip J.; Koppelhus, Eva B.; Shugar, Martin A.; et al. Feathered Dragons: Studies on the Transition from Dinosaurs to Birds. Life of the Past. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34373-4. LCCN 2003019035. OCLC 52942941.
- Wellnhofer, Peter (2009). Archaeopteryx: The Icon of Evolution. Translated by Frank Haase; foreword by Luis M. Chiappe (Revised English edition of the 1st German izd.). München: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil. ISBN 978-3-89937-108-6. OCLC 501736379.
Spoljašnje veze
[uredi | uredi izvor]- Fossils on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)
- The Virtual Fossil Museum throughout Time and Evolution
- Paleoportal, geology and fossils of the United States Arhivirano na sajtu Wayback Machine (30. septembar 2009)
- The Fossil Record, a complete listing of the families, orders, class and phyla found in the fossil record
- Paleontology na sajtu Curlie (jezik: engleski)
- Ernest Ingersoll (1920). „Fossils”. Encyclopedia Americana.
- „Fossil”. New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
- Lloyd, Robin (11. 2. 2009). „Fossils Reveal Truth About Darwin's Theory”. LiveScience. Ogden UT: Purch. Pristupljeno 2015-05-19.
- Hunt, Kathleen (17. 3. 1997). „Transitional Vertebrate Fossils FAQ”. TalkOrigins Archive. Houston, TX: The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. Pristupljeno 2015-05-19.
- „Tiktaalik roseae”. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago. Arhivirano iz originala 12. 11. 2011. g. Pristupljeno 2015-05-19.
- „Whales Tohorā”. Wellington, New Zealand: Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. Pristupljeno 2015-05-19.
- Hutchinson, John R. (22. 1. 1998). „Are Birds Really Dinosaurs?”. DinoBuzz. Berkeley, CA: University of California Museum of Paleontology. Pristupljeno 2015-05-19.