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Zapotečka civilizacija

S Vikipedije, slobodne enciklopedije
Zapotečke žene i deca.

Zapotečka civilizacija je bila starosedelačka predkolumbijska civilizacija koja je cvetala u dolini Oahake u Mezoamerici. Arheološki dokazi pokazuju da je njihova kultura nastala pre najmanje 2.500 godina. Arheološko nalazište Zapotec u drevnom gradu Monte Alban ima monumentalne zgrade, lopte za lopte, velelepne grobnice, uključujući fino obrađen zlatni nakit. Monte Alban je bio jedan od prvih većih gradova u Mezoamerici. Bilo je središte države Zapotek koja je dominirala većim delom teritorije koja je danas poznata kao meksička država Oahaka.

Istorija

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Palata od Kolona, Mitla, Oahaka

Zapotečka civilizacija je nastala u centralnim dolinama Oahake krajem 6. veka pre nove ere. Tri doline bile su podeljene između tri različita društva, razdvojena ničijom zemljom površine 80 km2 (31 sq mi) u sredini. Grad Oahaka se mnogo kasnije razvio u toj oblasti. Arheološki dokazi, poput spaljenih hramova i žrtvovanih ratnih zarobljenika, ukazuju na to da su se tri društva takmičila jedno protiv drugog. Na kraju faze Rosario (700–500. p. n. e.), najveće naselje u dolini San Hose Mogote i obližnje naselje u dolini Etle, izgubili su većinu svog stanovništva.

Jezik

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Tonski sistem Tehmelukanskog Zapoteka.

Zapotečki jezici pripadaju porodici jezika zvanoj oto-mange, drevnoj porodici mezoameričkih jezika. Procenjuje se da su se današnji oto-mangeski jezici odvojili od zajedničkog korena oko 1500. godine pre nove ere. Mangeski jezici su se verovatno prvo odvojili, a zatim je sledio otopamejski ogranak, dok se divergencija mištekanskih i zapotekanskih jezika dogodila još kasnije.[1] Zapotekanska grupa uključuje zapotečke jezike i blisko srodni čatinski. Zapotečki jezici se govore u delovima Severne Sijere, Centralnih dolina, kao i u delovima Južne Sijere, na prevlaci Tehuantepek i duž delova pacifičke obale.[2] Zbog decenija iseljavanja, zapotečki se takođe govori u delovima Meksiko Sitija i Los Anđelesa, Kalifornija. Postoji 7 različitih zapotečkih jezika i preko 100 dijalekata.

Zapotečki je tonski jezik, što znači da je smisao reči često određen visinom glasa (tonema), bitnim za razumevanje značenja različitih reči. Zapotečki jezici imaju do 4 različita tonema: visoki, niski, rastući i padajući.[3]

Društvo

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Između 1. i 2. faze Monte Albana došlo je do značajne ekspanzije stanovništva doline Oahake. Kako je stanovništvo raslo, rastao je i stepen društvene diferencijacije, centralizacije političke moći i ceremonijalnih aktivnosti. Tokom Monte Albana 1-2 izgleda da je dolina bila podeljena na nekoliko nezavisnih država, što se manifestuje u regionalnim centrima moći.[4] Do faze 3 Monte Albana, fragmentacija između grada i dolina rezultirala je porastom stanovništva i urbanog razvoja samog Monte Albana.[5]

Geografija

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Pogled na lokaciju Monte Alban. Smešten na vrhu planine, Monte Alban gleda na veći deo doline Oahake.

Centralne doline Oahake, kolevka civilizacije Zapoteka, su tri široke doline — Etla na zapadu, Okotlan na jugu i Mitla na istoku — koje se spajaju na nadmorskoj visini od oko 4.500 ft (1.400 m) u centru današnje države Oahaka. Nalaze se oko 200 km južno od Meksiko Sitija. Planine okružuju dolinu sa Sijera Norte na severu i planinama Tlakolula na jugoistoku. Okruženje je veoma pogodno za poljoprivredu i smatra se jednom od kolevki kukuruza. Procenjuje se da u vreme nastanka Zapotečke civilizacije tlo u dolini nije bilo pogođeno erozijom koja se danas vidi, jer hrastove i borove šume koje pokrivaju okolne planine još nisu bile desetkovane sečom. Od novembra do maja postoji sušna sezona, ali duž reka je moguće dva puta saditi i ubirati useve. Kroz planine prolazi od severozapada ka jugu reka Atojak koja obezbeđuje vodu za mali pojas zemlje koji se graniči sa rekom, kada povremeno poplavi. Da bi obezbedili vodu za useve na drugim mestima u dolini daleko od reke, Zapoteci su koristili kanale za navodnjavanje. Koristeći vodu iz malih potoka, Zapoteci su uspeli da dovedu vodu do Monte Albana, koji se nalazi 400 m iznad dna doline. Arheolozi su pronašli ostatke malog sistema za navodnjavanje koji se sastoji od brane i kanala na jugoistočnom obodu planine. Kako to ne bi bilo dovoljno da se podržava svo stanovništvo Monte Albana, pretpostavlja se da je postojalo više drugih sistema za navodnjavanje.[6] Isto tako, usevi uzgajani u dolini nisu bili dovoljni da se održi brzi rast stanovništva u fazi Monte Albana I. Stoga su usevi gajeni u podnožju, gde je tlo manje plodno i bilo je potrebno veštačko navodnjavanje.[6]

Inovacija u poljoprivredi omogućila je Zapotecima da odaju počast španskim osvajačima i stvore dovoljno viška da se prehrane uprkos prirodnim katastrofama i bolestima.[7]

Tehnologija

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Zapotečka mozaička maska koja predstavlja Boga slepog miša, napravljena od 25 komada žada, sa žutim očima od školjke. Pronađena je u grobnici u Monte Albanu

Zapoteci su razvili kalendar i logoslogovni sistem pisanja koji je koristio zaseban glif da predstavlja svaki od slogova jezika. Smatra se da je ovaj sistem pisanja jedan od prvih sistema pisanja u Mezoamerici i prethodnik onih koje su razvile civilizacije Maja, Mišteka i Asteka. Vodi se debata o tome da li su olmečki simboli, datirani na 650. p. n. e., zapravo oblik pisanja koji prethodi najstarijem zapisu Zapoteka koji datira od oko 500. godine p. n. e.[8]

Religija

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Slikana keramička pogrebna urna sa prikazom sedeće figure. Zapotečka kultura (faza Monte Albana III), rani i srednji klasični period (100—700) Meksiko.

Kao i većina mezoameričkih religioznih sistema, Zapotečka religija je bila politeistička. Neka poznata božanstva bila su Kosiho, bog kiše (slično astečkom bogu Tlaloku); Kokahani, bog svetlosti; i Pitao Kozobi, bog kukuruza.[9] Zapotečka božanstva su bila pretežno povezana sa plodnošću ili poljoprivredom. Predstavljena su muška i ženska božanstva, diferencirana po nošnji. Muškarci su prikazani kako nose parče tkanine oko kukova sa ili bez ogrtača, dok su žene prikazane u suknjama. Postoje neki dokazi o obožavanju božanstava koja nisu direktno povezana sa Zapotečkom kulturom, kao što su teotihuakanska pernata zmija, Bog leptira i Bog kiše; i Nahuatl bog proleća Šipe Toteka.[10] Veruje se da su Zapoteci koristili ljudsko žrtvovanje u nekim svojim ritualima.

Postoji nekoliko legendi o poreklu Zapoteka. Jedna od njih je da su oni bili prvobitni ljudi iz doline Oahake i da su nastali od stena, ili da su potomci velikih mačaka kao što su pume, jaguari i oceloti. Drugi je da su se Zapoteci naselili u dolini Oahake nakon što su osnovali Toltečko carstvo, i da su bili su potomci naroda Čikomoztoka. Ove legende su zapisane tek nakon španskog osvajanja.[11]

Rituali posvećenja

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Zapoteci su koristili rituale posvećenja da bi osvetili svoje životne prostore i strukture. Iskopavanje humke III u piramidi hrama Kuilapan u Oahaki otkrilo je ostavu posvećenja koja sadrži mnogo perli od žada, dva žadna ušna kalema, tri oštrice od opsidijana, školjke, kamenje, biser i kosti malih životinja, verovatno od ptica, datiranih na 700. godinu.[12] Svaki od ovih materijala simbolizovao je različite verske koncepte. Kako nije bilo lako dostupan, žad se cenio, a obrađeni žad još više jer su elita bili primarni umetnici. Oštrice od opsidijana su povezane sa žrtvovanjem, jer su se obično koristile u ritualima puštanja krvi. Školjke i biser predstavljaju podzemni svet, budući da su iz okeana, a male ptičje kosti predstavljaju nebo i njegov odnos prema uravnoteženom kosmosu. Ovi artefakti su značajni zbog njihovog postavljanja u strukturu koja se koristi za ritual i povezanošću sa moći. Ova ostava je oblik rituala posvećenja, koji posvećuje piramidu hrama Kuilapan ovim idejama moći, žrtvovanja i odnosa između podzemlja i kosmosa.

Reference

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  1. ^ Whitecotton 1977, str. 12–13 Ll.2-16.
  2. ^ Whitecotton 1977, str. 12 Ll.35-37.
  3. ^ Whitecotton 1977, str. 13 Ll.20-27.
  4. ^ Whitecotton 1977, str. 33 Ll.16-18.
  5. ^ Evans, Susan Toby (2013). Ancient Mexico and Central America: Archaeology and Culture History. London: Thames and Hudson. str. 384. ISBN 978-0-500-29066-8. 
  6. ^ a b Marcus & Flannery 1996, str. 147–148.
  7. ^ González, Roberto J. (2010). Zapotec Science: Farming and Food in the Northern Sierra of Oaxaca. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-77897-9. 
  8. ^ Bower, Bruce (4. 12. 2002). „Script Delivery: New World writing takes disputed turn”. Science News. 
  9. ^ Whitecotton 1977, str. 52 Ll.23- 33.
  10. ^ Whitecotton 1977, str. 52–53 Ll.34- 2.
  11. ^ Whitecotton 1977, str. 23 Ll.11-26.
  12. ^ Marcus, Joyce (oktobar 1978). „Archaeology and religion: A comparison of the Zapotec and Maya”. World Archaeology. 10 (2): 172—191. doi:10.1080/00438243.1978.9979729. 

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Zapotečka civilizacija na Vikimedijinoj ostavi.
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